Although sheep were domesticated by ≈11000 before present (BP) (25) and goats and cows by ≈10000 BP (26,27), early direct chemical evidence for dairying dates to 6100 to 5500 BP from residues of dairy fats found on pottery in Britain (28). The advent of the oil-seed processing industry at the beginning of the 20th century significantly raised the total intake of vegetable fat (Figure 4), which directly increased the dietary level of n−6 PUFAs at the expense of a lowered level of n−3 PUFAs because of the inherently higher concentrations of n−6 PUFAs and lower concentrations of n−3 PUFAs in most vegetable oils (111). For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription. Truswell AS. As these foods gradually displaced the minimally processed wild plant and animal foods in hunter-gatherer diets, they adversely affected the following dietary indicators 1) glycemic load, 2), fatty acid composition, 3) macronutrient composition, 4) micronutrient density, 5) acid-base balance, 6) sodium-potassium ratio, and 7) fiber content. Similar to all species, contemporary humans are genetically adapted to the environment of their ancestors—that is, to the environment that their ancestors survived in and that consequently conditioned their genetic makeup (1–3). Hence, ≥ 39% of the total energy in the typical US diet is supplied by foods that may promote the 4 proximate causes of insulin resistance: chronic and substantial elevations in plasma glucose (91,92), insulin (93,94), VLDL (95), and free fatty acid (96) concentrations. But the use of force should be our last resort, not our first—used only to defend our vital interests, when the objective is clear and achievable, and with the informed consent of the American people. Old El Paso Foods Co, Mississauga, Canada. The systematic mining, manufacture, and transportation of salt have their origin in the Neolithic Period. We must ensure the technologies of the future like AI are bound by laws and ethics and promote greater shared prosperity and democracy. Working cooperatively with other nations makes us more secure and more successful. Food and food types found in Western diets generally unavailable to preagricultural hominins1. The vitamins and minerals most frequently lacking in the US diet are listed in Table 3. Additionally, body fat percentages in wild mammals typically vary by age and sex and also seasonally in a cyclic waxing and waning manner with changing availability of food sources and the photoperiod (Figure 5) (57,58). And he will end our support for the Saudi-led war in Yemen. In postmenopausal women aged ≥50 y, 7.2% have osteoporosis and 39.6% have osteopenia (16). Ostman EM, Liljeberg Elmstahl HG, Bjorck IM. Before the Neolithic period, all animal foods consumed by hominins were derived from wild animals. Soluble fibers (those found primarily in fruit and vegetables) modestly reduce total and LDL-cholesterol concentrations beyond those achieved by a diet low in saturated fat and fiber, by slowing gastric emptying, may reduce the appetite and help to control caloric intake (171). If Tehran returns to compliance with the deal, President Biden would re-enter the agreement, using hard-nosed diplomacy and support from our allies to strengthen and extend it, while more effectively pushing back against Iran’s other destabilizing activities. The Biden administration will make the investments necessary to equip our troops for the challenges of the next century, not the last one. Diets low in dietary fiber may underlie or exacerbate constipation, appendicitis, hemorrhoids, deep vein thrombosis, varicose veins, diverticulitis, hiatal hernia, and gastroesophageal reflux (172). Get high-quality papers at affordable prices. Per capita consumption of sucrose in England from 1815 to 1970. Furthermore, fiber-depleted, refined grains represent 85% of the grains consumed in the United States (Table 1), and because refined grains contain 400% less fiber than do whole grains (by energy), they further dilute the total dietary fiber intake. Low- (22% energy) and high- (39% energy) fat diets that had identical ratios of PUFAs to SFAs, n−6 PUFAs to n−3 PUFAs, and MUFAs to total fat produced no significant differences in total or LDL cholesterol after a 50-d trial (104). Nutritional info available for raw fruits, vegetables, fish, US Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, America’s eating habits: changes and consequences, Australian aboriginal plant foods: a consideration of their nutritional composition and health implications, Estimation of net endogenous noncarbonic acid production in humans from diet potassium and protein contents, Estimation of the net acid load of the diet of ancestral preagricultural, Relationship between urinary calcium and net acid excretion as determined by dietary protein and potassium: a review, Effect of age on blood acid-base composition in adult humans: role of age-related renal functional decline, Jr. Midlife increases in suicides and drug poisonings have been previously noted. Seasonal fluctuations in percentage body fat in caribou. Cordain L, Brand Miller J, Eaton SB, Mann N, Holt SHA, Speth JD. Within the past 20 y, substantial evidence has accumulated showing that long term consumption of high glycemic load carbohydrates can adversely affect metabolism and health (71,77,78). Message & Data Rates May Apply. If the white mortality rate for ages 45−54 had held at their 1998 value, 96,000 deaths would have been avoided from 1999–2013, 7,000 in 2013 alone. Seino Y, Seino S, Ikeda M, Matsukura S, Imura H. Piatti PM, Monti F, Fermo I, et al.Â, Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al.Â. Adapted from Cleave (38). Consequently, the large-scale addition of refined vegetable oils to the world’s food supply after the Industrial Revolution significantly altered both quantitative and qualitative aspects of fat intake. BAW and NM edited the health ramification section on fatty acid composition. Nouvelles approches experimentales et ethnographique, Flour for man’s bread, a history of milling, Secular changes in the stature of adults and the secular trend of modern sugar consumption, Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, O’Connell JF. In the United States before 1850, virtually all cattle were free range or pasture fed and were typically slaughtered at 4–5 y of age (66). This situation worsened as cereal milling techniques developed in the Industrial era allowed for the production of bread flour devoid of the more nutrient-dense bran and germ (35). Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. The fiber content (15.1 g/d) (23) of the typical US diet is considerably lower than recommended values (25–30 g) (116). Built under license in many countries, its civilian versions are still in service now, in the early XXI century. Margarine and shortening are produced by solidifying or partially solidifying vegetable oils via hydrogenation, a process first developed in 1897 (44). Adapted from Spiess (57). Oils made from walnuts, almonds, olives, sesame seeds, and flax seeds likely were first produced via the rendering and pressing process between 5000 and 6000 y ago. Second, vegetable oils and refined sugars, which are essentially devoid of potassium, constitute 36% of the total food energy. Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Miller ER III, Maguire MG, Selhub J, Appel LJ. The known health benefits of a net base-yielding diet include preventing and treating osteoporosis (150,151), age-related muscle wasting (152), calcium kidney stones (153,154), hypertension (155,156), and exercise-induced asthma (157) and slow the progression of age- and disease-related chronic renal insufficiency (158). Revitalize our national commitment to advancing human rights and democracy around the world. When the United States hosts the next Summit of the Americas in 2021, President Biden will harness this opportunity to rebuild strong hemispheric ties based on respect for democracy, human rights, and the rule of law. As president, Biden will use this substantial leverage to shape the future rules of the road on everything from the environment to labor to trade to transparency, non-proliferation to cyber theft, and data privacy to artificial intelligence, so they continue to reflect democratic interests and values—America’s interests and values. A similar situation exists for refined vegetable oils, except that they contain 2 fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin E and vitamin K) (64). As was the case with sucrose, current Western dietary intakes of fructose could not have occurred on a population-wide basis before industrialization and the introduction of the food-processing industry. The trend toward a higher ratio of n−6 to n−3 PUFAs was exacerbated as meat from grain fed cattle and livestock became the norm in the US diet over the past 100 y (11,66). Rather, diets would have varied by geographic locale, climate, and specific ecologic niche. The consumption of sugars, mainly as sucrose and glucose-fructose syrups, has dramatically increased worldwide and growing concerns about their adverse effects on health and metabolic diseases, such as metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular diseases, and type 2 diabetes (T2D), have motivated people to reduce the consumption of free sugars. Hence, maximal or peak body fat percentages in wild mammals are maintained only for a few months during the course of a year, even for mammals residing at tropical and southern latitudes (59). In conjunction with this discordance between our ancient, genetically determined biology and the nutritional, cultural, and activity patterns in contemporary Western populations, many of the so-called diseases of civilization have emerged (2–12). As was previously mentioned, carbohydrates with a high glycemic load encourage a proatherogenic blood profile by elevating triacylglycerols and small-dense LDLs, while reducing HDL cholesterol. RE, retinol equivalents. She's also a YouTube star. There is growing awareness that the profound changes in the environment (eg, in diet and other lifestyle conditions) that began with the introduction of agriculture and animal husbandry ≈10000 y ago occurred too recently on an evolutionary time scale for the human genome to adjust. In Europe the earliest evidence of salt exploitation comes from salt mines at Cardona, Spain, dating to 6200–5600 BP (52). Plasma homocysteine as a cardiovascular risk factor: causal, consequential, or of no consequence? Defend our Vital Interests: As president, Biden will never hesitate to protect the American people, including when necessary, by using force. lems Appe ble claim Prob a n e i g T h t e in e l t tab edur -Tes entify priate Proc nd id hesis appro y=p0o.0t5 eses a e 8–17 h H h t a t E o re g R A p in FIGU e11h3 y is. ) Convene a climate world summit to directly engage the leaders of the major carbon-emitting nations of the world to persuade them to join the United States in making more ambitious national pledges, above and beyond the commitments they have already made. The evolutionary collision of our ancient genome with the nutritional qualities of recently introduced foods may underlie many of the chronic diseases of Western civilization. Madsen T, Skou HA, Hansen VE, et al.Â. However, that these upward trends were persistent and large enough to drive up all-cause midlife mortality has, to our knowledge, been overlooked. Dietary protein is also inversely related to blood homocysteine concentration (127), an independent risk factor for CVD. That is why, as president, Biden will pursue a foreign policy for the middle class. Donald Trump’s erratic policies and failure to uphold basic democratic principles have surrendered our position in the world, undermined our democratic alliances, weakened our ability to mobilize others to meet these challenges, and threatened our security and our future. In mammals, storage of excess food energy as fat occurs primarily as triacylglycerols in subcutaneous and abdominal fat depots. In the United States and most Western countries, diet-related chronic diseases represent the single largest cause of morbidity and mortality. Arguing that our policies at home and abroad are deeply connected, Joe Biden announced that, as president, he will advance the security, prosperity, and values of the United States by taking immediate steps to renew our own democracy and alliances, protect our economic future, and once more place America at the head of the table, leading the world to address the most urgent global challenges. Recent clinical trials have shown that calorie-restricted, high-protein diets are more effective than are calorie-restricted, high-carbohydrate diets in promoting (136–138) and maintaining (139) weight loss in overweight subjects while producing less hunger and more satisfaction (140). Achieve Solutions is a dynamic online resource with information, tools and other resources on more than 200 topics, including depression, stress, anxiety, alcohol, marriage, grief and loss, child/elder care, work/life balance. Increases in HFCS occurred simultaneously, whereas sucrose consumption declined (Figure 3). A Biden administration will do more than restore our historic partnerships; it will lead the effort to reimagine them for the future. More than 64 million Americans have one or more types of cardiovascular disease (CVD), which represents the leading cause of mortality (38.5% of all deaths) in the United States (15). Glycemic indexes and glycemic loads of various food groups1. In 1866, the use of the metric system in the United States was legalized but not made mandatory. Diseases of insulin resistance are frequently referred to as “diseases of civilization” (5,78,79) and include: obesity, coronary heart disease (CHD), type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and dyslipidemia [elevated serum triacylglycerols, small-dense, LDL cholesterol and reduced HDL cholesterol]. As president, Biden will elevate diplomacy as the premier tool of our global engagement. Although both scientists and lay people alike may frequently identify a single dietary element as the cause of chronic disease (eg, saturated fat causes heart disease and salt causes high blood pressure), evidence gleaned over the past 3 decades now indicates that virtually all so-called diseases of civilization have multifactorial dietary elements that underlie their etiology, along with other environmental agents and genetic susceptibility. Fifty million Americans are hypertensive; 11 million have type 2 diabetes, and 37 million adults maintain high-risk total cholesterol concentrations (>240 mg/dL) (15). Frassetto L, Morris RC, Sebastian A. Sebastian A, Harris ST, Ottaway JH Todd KM, Morris RC. Glycemic load = glycemic index × carbohydrate content (in 100-g portions); the glycemic reference is glucose with a glycemic index of 100. In conjunction with this discordance between our ancient, genetically determined biology and the nutritional, cultural, and activity patterns of contemporary Western populations, many of the so-called diseases of civilization have emerged. Slowly digested and absorbed carbohydrate in traditional bushfoods: a protective factor against diabetes? Studies of contemporary hunter-gatherers show that gathered honey represented a relatively minor dietary component over the course of a year, despite high intakes in some groups during short periods of availability. Elevate Diplomacy: As president, Biden will elevate diplomacy as the premier tool of our global engagement. Calculations were made with the use of previously described procedures (148). Per capita consumption of refined sugars in the United States from 1970 to 2000. None of the authors had a financial interest or professional or personal affiliation that compromised the scientific integrity of this work. Hence, as was the case with dairy foods, before the Epi-Paleolithic (10000–11000 y ago) and Neolithic (10000 to 5500 y ago) periods, there was little or no previous evolutionary experience for cereal grain consumption throughout hominin evolution. The micronutrient concentrations for each food group were derived from reference 64. Frassetto LA, Todd KM, Morris RC, Sebastian A. Sebastian A, Frassetto LA, Sellmeyer DE, Merriam RL, Morris RC. Determining the influence of high glucose on exosomal lncRNAs, mRNAs, circRNAs and miRNAs derived from human renal tubular epithelial cells. Program within @mayoclinicgradschool is currently accepting applications! For example, as president, Biden will launch a top-to-bottom review of our funding to Central America to determine how we can build on a successful initiative from the Obama-Biden administration that secured concrete commitments from the leaders of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras to take on the corruption, violence, and endemic poverty that drive migration. In contrast with dairy products, cereal grains, refined sugars, and oils, alcohol consumption in the typical US diet represents a relatively minor contribution (1.4%) to the total energy consumed. Endogenous conversion of n-6 to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids facilitates the repair of cardiotoxin-induced skeletal muscle injury in. End the practice of anonymous shell companies; Institute strict conflict-of-interest and anti-corruption policies for every member of the Biden administration so there will be no more self-dealing; Immediately return to daily press briefings at the White House, U.S. Department of State, and U.S. Department of Defense. In a speech at The Graduate Center at CUNY in New York, Joe Biden laid out his blueprint to repair the damage wrought by President Trump and chart a fundamentally different course for American foreign policy for the world as we find it today—and as we anticipate it will be tomorrow. Accordingly, cattle meat (muscle tissue) with a high absolute SFA content, low n−3 fatty acid content, and high n−6 fatty acid content represents a recent component of human diets (11). A consideration of its nature and current implications, Stone agers in the fast lane: chronic degenerative diseases in evolutionary perspective, Physical activity, energy expenditure and fitness: an evolutionary perspective, Cereal grains: humanity’s double edged sword, The relevance of Paleolithic diet in determining contemporary nutritional needs, Fatty acid analysis of wild ruminant tissues: evolutionary implications for reducing diet-related chronic disease, Diet, evolution and aging—the pathophysiologic effects of the post-agricultural inversion of the potassium-to-sodium and base-to-chloride ratios in the human diet, Prevalence of overweight and obesity among US children, adolescents, and adults, 1999–2002, Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States, Heart and stroke statistics—2004 update, Identification and fracture outcomes of undiagnosed low bone mineral density in postmenopausal women, Results from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment. However, except for olive oil, most early use of oils seems to have been for nonfood purposes such as illumination, lubrication, and medicine (43). In addition to high-glycemic-load carbohydrates, other elements of Neolithic and Industrial Era foods may contribute to the insulin resistance underlying metabolic syndrome diseases. Epidemiologic evidence supports the clinical data, which shows a cardiovascular protective effect of dietary protein. Democracy is the root of our society, the wellspring of our power, and the source of our renewal. Ascherio A, Hennekens CH, Buring JE Master C, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Because protein has >3 times the thermic effect of either fat or carbohydrate (134) and because it has a greater satiety value than do fat or carbohydrate (134,135), increased dietary protein may represent an effective weight-loss strategy for the overweight or obese. Salt from processed foods, table salt use, and cooking; in g/d. Additionally, salt is net acid producing because of the chloride ion (146). Adapted from the US Department of Agriculture (24). The hydrogenation process produces novel trans fatty acid isomers (trans elaidic acid in particular) that rarely, if ever, are found in conventional human foodstuffs (44). Appetite, feeding behaviour and energy balance in human subjects, Randomized trial on protein vs carbohydrate in ad libitum fat reduced diet for the treatment of obesity, High protein vs high carbohydrate hypoenergetic diet for the treatment of obese hyperinsulinemic subjects, The role of leucine in weight loss diets and glucose homeostasis, High protein intake sustains weight maintenance after body weight loss in humans, High-protein, low-fat diets are effective for weight loss and favorably alter biomarkers in healthy adults, Homocysteine and cardiovascular disease: evidence on causality from a meta-analysis. Contemporary diets devoid of cereal grains, dairy products, refined oils and sugars, and processed foods have been shown to contain significantly more fiber (42.5 g/d) than either current or recommended values (159). An anthropological, physiological and medical analysis, Food in antiquity: a survey of the diet of early peoples, Some interspecific aspects of body composition in mammals, Reindeer and caribou hunters: an archaeological study, Regulation of appetite and body weight in seasonal mammals, Bone marrow fat index and kidney-fat of several antelope species from Transkei, Organ weights in primates and other mammals, Contributions of tissues to body mass in elk, The contribution of various tissues and organs to total body mass in mule deer, Nutritionist V nutrition software, version 2.3, Comparison of muscle fatty acid profiles and cholesterol concentrations of bison, beef cattle, elk, and chicken, Feedlot empire: beef cattle feeding in Illinois and Iowa, 1840-1900, Effects of repeated urea dilution measurement on feedlot performance and consistency of estimated body composition in steers of different breed types, Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange, Dietary glycemic load and atherothrombotic risk, International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2002. Fructose maintains a low glycemic index of 23 and a low glycemic load, but paradoxically it is routinely used to induce insulin resistance in laboratory rodents at high (35–65% of energy) dietary concentrations (85,86). Collectively, this evidence suggests that the high salt consumption (≈10 g/d) in Western societies has minimal or no evolutionary precedent in hominin species before the Neolithic period. These foods, in turn, adversely influence proximate nutritional factors, which universally underlie or exacerbate virtually all chronic diseases of civilization: 1) glycemic load, 2) fatty acid composition, 3) macronutrient composition, 4) micronutrient density, 5) acid-base balance, 6) sodium-potassium ratio, and 7) fiber content. Burke V, Hodgson JM, Beilin LJ Giangiulioi N, Rogers P, Puddey IB. Meat-eating populations have been shown to maintain lower plasma homocysteine concentrations than nonmeat eaters (128,129). In contrasting pre- and postagricultural diets, it is important to consider not only the nutrient qualities and types of foods that likely would have been consumed by preagricultural hominins but to also recognize the types of foods and their nutrient qualities that could not have been regularly consumed before the development of agriculture, industrialization, and advanced technology. For example, as president, Biden will launch a top-to-bottom review of our funding to Central America to determine how we can build on a successful initiative from the Obama-Biden administration that secured concrete commitments from the leaders of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras to take on the corruption, violence, and endemic poverty that drive migration. It strengthens and amplifies our leadership to keep us safe in the world. Values in brackets represent relative ranking (7 = highest; 1 = lowest). Kellogg’s Inc, Auckland, Australia and Battle Creek, MI. n−3 PUFAs may reduce the risk of CVD via many mechanisms, including reductions in ventricular arrhythmias, blood clotting, serum triacylglycerol concentrations, growth of atherosclerotic plaques, and blood pressure (98). During the period from ≈800 to 1300 AD, various populations in Europe, the Near East, and China learned to distill alcoholic beverages (47). Adequate dietary intake of both folate and vitamin B-6 prevents the accumulation of homocysteine in the bloodstream. 1999. Percentages of all individuals aged ≥ 2 y not meeting 100% of the 1989 US recommended dietary allowances1. Positive and negative values represent acid-producing and base-producing equivalents, respectively. Diets containing lower concentrations (20% of energy) of fructose worsened insulin sensitivity in hyperinsulinemic men (87); more recently it was shown that fructose infusions in healthy men and women induce insulin resistance (88). In numerous population studies, summarized by Obarzanek et al (130), higher blood pressure has been associated with lower intakes of protein. An increasing body of evidence indicates that high-protein diets may improve blood lipid profiles (119–123) and thereby lessen the risk of CVD. Biden will continue to build on this vision over the course of the campaign. Legumes yield near-zero mean acid values, which reflects an overlapping distribution from slightly net acid producing to slightly net base producing. High-glycemic-load diets are associated with increased concentrations of CRP (107), as are low dietary intakes of n−3 PUFAs (108), and diets that encourage weight loss reduce CRP (109) concentrations. 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